A Guide to the Space Exploration Technologies of Today

By Ankit SinghReviewed by Susha Cheriyedath, M.Sc.Dec 4 2024

Space exploration is becoming more accessible than ever, driven by new technologies, growing investment from private companies, and a renewed sense of competition and collaboration among nations.

Image Credit: Alones/Shutterstock.com

What used to be the exclusive domain of large government space agencies is now more accessible, with innovations like reusable rockets, advanced propulsion systems, and better life support technology making missions more practical and ambitious. These advancements are opening up exciting opportunities to explore space in ways we never thought possible.

The Era of Reusable Rockets

Reusable rockets represent one of the most fascinating advancements in modern space technology, transforming how we approach space missions. In the past, rockets were single-use, discarded after completing their mission, making space launches prohibitively expensive. Today, reusable rockets are dramatically reducing these costs, enabling the emergence of new industries, frequent missions, and ambitious exploration projects.¹

SpaceX pioneered this technology with its Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets. The Falcon 9's first stage can land on either a drone ship or a ground pad, making it possible to reuse the rocket several times. This has had an immense impact on reducing the cost-per-kilogram of payloads sent to orbit. SpaceX's Starship, still in development, aims to make the entire rocket—both first and second stages—reusable, potentially lowering costs even further and enabling missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.¹

Blue Origin has also developed reusable rocket technology with its New Shepard and New Glenn rockets. New Shepard is used for suborbital missions, including space tourism, while New Glenn is designed for larger payloads and orbital missions.¹

Reusable rockets have completely changed the economics of space exploration. Key benefits include:

• Satellite Deployment: Launching satellites is now cheaper and easier, which has boosted essential services like global communications, Earth observation, and weather forecasting. The reduced costs mean more organizations can afford to send satellites into orbit, expanding capabilities across industries.¹
• Space Tourism: Companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic are making space tourism a reality. Suborbital flights now allow everyday people—not just astronauts—to experience space firsthand, bringing humanity closer to realizing the dream of accessible space travel.¹
• Interplanetary Exploration: SpaceX’s Starship, designed to be fully reusable, is setting the stage for affordable missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. This could make the dream of economically building communities on other planets achievable in our lifetime.¹

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Advanced Propulsion: Beyond Chemical Rockets

While reusable rockets are revolutionizing how we reach orbit, advanced propulsion systems are key to exploring deeper into space. Traditional chemical rockets are powerful, but their inefficiency over long distances makes them unsuitable for interplanetary and deep-space missions, where speed, fuel efficiency, and longevity are critical.²

Ion propulsion is one of the most promising technologies in this area. By using electric fields to accelerate ions, it produces a continuous, fuel-efficient thrust that allows spacecraft to travel vast distances with minimal fuel. Although ion engines generate less thrust than chemical rockets, their efficiency over long periods makes them ideal for missions like NASA’s Dawn spacecraft, which traveled to and explored two dwarf planets in the asteroid belt.^2,3

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) is another promising solution, especially for human missions to Mars. NTP uses nuclear reactors to superheat hydrogen, providing far greater efficiency than chemical rockets. This could significantly reduce travel times, minimizing astronauts’ exposure to harmful radiation and making crewed missions to Mars more practical.^2,3

Solar sails, as demonstrated by The Planetary Society’s LightSail project, offer a unique, fuel-free option for propulsion. By harnessing the pressure of sunlight, solar sails generate slow but continuous acceleration, making them ideal for deep-space exploration where fuel limitations are a major concern.^2,3

Next-generation propulsion systems are making deep-space exploration faster and more fuel-efficient, pushing the boundaries of space exploration by empowering:

• Deep-Space Exploration: Ion propulsion is perfect for deep-space missions, enabling probes to journey to asteroids, outer planets, and beyond while requiring minimal fuel. This technology has already been used by missions like NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) and Psyche.^2,3
• Crewed Mars Missions: NTP could slash travel times to Mars, reducing astronauts’ exposure to harmful space radiation and making crewed missions more feasible.^2,3
• Interstellar Voyages: Solar sails hold promise for lightweight, long-duration missions, where gradual but continuous acceleration could help small probes venture far beyond the solar system.^2,3

Habitats and Life Support Systems for Long-Term Space Living

As missions extend beyond Earth’s orbit and into deep space, the need for sustainable habitats and life support systems becomes even more crucial. Unlike short missions to the ISS, where frequent resupply missions from Earth are possible, future lunar or Martian outposts will need to operate with minimal external support, requiring self-sufficient solutions.⁴

NASA’s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) on the ISS already recycles water and oxygen, reducing the need for constant resupply. However, future missions will demand even more efficient technologies. Closed-loop life support systems, capable of recycling air, water, and waste, will be essential for supporting long-term human survival in environments like the Moon or Mars.⁴

Inflatable habitats offer a promising solution for creating livable spaces. Modules like Bigelow’s Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) on the ISS demonstrate how lightweight, expandable structures can provide practical living environments. These habitats can be compact for transport and expanded upon arrival, making them ideal for space missions or planetary bases.⁴

Radiation protection is another critical challenge for deep-space missions. Beyond Earth's magnetosphere, astronauts are exposed to dangerous cosmic rays and solar flares. Solutions under development include water-based radiation shields and magnetic field generators designed to replicate Earth’s natural protection.⁴

As space missions grow longer and venture farther, sustainable habitats and advanced life support systems are becoming non-negotiable. Developing self-sustaining habitats and life support systems will become essential for ensuring survival and comfort in the hostile conditions of space. Key innovations include:

• Lunar and Martian Habitats: Closed-loop life support systems and inflatable habitats that will allow astronauts to live on the Moon or Mars for extended periods, reducing dependence on resupply missions from Earth.^2,4
• Long-Duration Space Missions: Sustainable life support systems that can be used for missions to Mars or beyond, where travel times can span months or years.^2,4
• Space Tourism and Commercial Space Stations: As space tourism expands, inflatable habitats and reliable life support systems will provide the infrastructure for longer stays in orbit or even on lunar bases.^2,4

ISRU: Using Space to Survive in Space

Building on advancements in sustainable habitats and life support systems, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) takes space sustainability a step further. By using the resources available on the Moon, Mars, and asteroids, ISRU minimizes reliance on Earth-based resupply missions, making long-term space missions and settlements more feasible.⁶

Innovative technologies are being developed to make this concept a reality. For instance, oxygen extraction systems can process lunar regolith, which contains oxides, to produce oxygen for breathing and as an oxidizer for rocket fuel. Water ice, found in shadowed lunar craters and at Martian poles, can be extracted and split into hydrogen and oxygen for drinking water, life support, and fuel production. Metal extraction techniques are also being explored to create building materials for habitats, tools, and infrastructure directly on-site.⁶

ISRU represents a crucial step toward ensuring that humans not only survive but thrive during extended missions and colonization efforts beyond Earth. Outlined below are some key applications that illustrate the role of ISRUs in sustaining long-term missions.

• Lunar Bases: The ability to extract and use local resources on the Moon will be critical for sustaining long-term lunar bases, minimizing the need for costly supply missions. NASA’s Artemis program aims to utilize ISRU to create a sustainable presence on the Moon by extracting oxygen and water from the lunar surface.⁶
• Mars Colonization: ISRU will be essential for human missions to Mars, from providing breathable air and drinking water to producing rocket fuel for return missions or onward journeys.⁶
• Fuel Stations in Space: Future missions could establish fuel depots on the Moon or Mars, enabling spacecraft to refuel for deep-space exploration, reducing reliance on Earth-based refueling.⁶

Miniaturized Satellites: The CubeSat Revolution

As space exploration becomes more inclusive and cost-effective, the rise of miniaturized satellites is reshaping the industry. CubeSats, small and modular satellites, are a prime example of how innovation is enabling more players—governments, companies, and even universities—to participate in space missions. Compact yet capable, these satellites are driving advancements in Earth observation, scientific research, and global communications, making space exploration more accessible than ever.

Despite their size, these tiny satellites are equipped with sensors, cameras, and communication systems that enable them to perform a wide range of tasks.⁵

In addition to compact electronics, CubeSats benefit from innovative propulsion systems tailored to their scale.⁵ Electric propulsion allows for precise orbit changes and station-keeping, while cold gas thrusters provide short bursts of propulsion for altitude control. Inter-satellite communication systems also enable CubeSats to work in constellations, exchanging data and coordinating activities for more complex missions, such as:

• Earth Observation and Monitoring: CubeSats have become a game-changer for Earth observation, offering affordable and frequent imaging capabilities for a range of applications, including environmental monitoring, disaster response, and agricultural management. Companies like Planet Labs operate fleets of CubeSats to provide daily imagery of the entire planet.⁵
• Scientific Missions: CubeSats are also being used to explore space on a budget. For instance, NASA’s Mars Cubesat One (MarCO) mission successfully used CubeSats to relay data from the InSight lander on Mars.⁵
• Global Internet Networks: Companies like SpaceX with its Starlink constellation are using CubeSats to provide global broadband coverage, expanding internet access to remote regions on Earth.⁵

Conclusion

The space exploration technologies of today are redefining what is possible, from reusable rockets to life support systems and AI-driven spacecraft. With advancements in propulsion, habitats, and resource utilization, space is becoming more accessible and sustainable. As national space agencies and private companies continue to push the boundaries, the dream of long-term human presence in space is moving closer to reality.

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References and Further Reading

1. Baiocco, P. (2021). Overview of reusable space systems with a look to technology aspects. Acta Astronautica, 189, 10-25. DOI:10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.07.039. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576521003970
2. Pessoa Filho, J. B. (2021). Space Age: Past, Present and Possible Futures. Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management, 13. DOI:10.1590/jatm.v13.1226. https://www.scielo.br/j/jatm/a/xmNdv3CdWTG3hmPWSGgR7Hn/
3. Biswal. M, M.K. et al. (2022). A Review on Human Interplanetary Exploration Challenges. AIAA SCITECH 2022 Forum. DOI:10.2514/6.2022-2585. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/6.2022-2585
4. Rollock, A. (2023). A Methodology for the Systematic Review of Space Architecture Concepts. In The 52nd International Conference on Environmental Systems. https://hdl.handle.net/2346/94583
5. Liddle, J. D. et al. (2020). Space science with CubeSats and nanosatellites. Nature Astronomy, 4(11), 1026-1030. DOI:10.1038/s41550-020-01247-2. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-01247-2
6. Zhang, P. et al. (2023). Overview of the lunar in-situ resource utilization techniques for future lunar missions. Space: Science & Technology. DOI:10.34133/space.0037. https://spj.science.org/doi/full/10.34133/space.0037

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